Protecting the ozone layer : the United Nations history / by Stephen O. Andersen and K. Madhava Sarma ; edited by Lani Sinclair.

Includes index.

Foreword by Kofi A Annan. Preface by Klaus Topfer. Introduction and reader's guide. 1. The science of ozone depletion: From theory to certainty : Introduction -- Early theories: Scientists identify and name ozone -- Modern scientists hypothesize threats to ozone -- Discovering and measuring the Antarctic ozone 'hole' -- International scientific teams link CFCs and ozone depletion -- First assessment, 1989: 1987 Protocol inadequate, total phase-out required -- Second assessment, 1991: Quicker phase-out possible, control HCFCs and methyl bromide -- Expedition finds significant depletion over the northern hemisphere -- Third assessment, 1994: Mount Pinatubo volcano depletes ozone, Arctic ozone depletion confirmed -- Fourth assessment, 1998: Montreal Protocol working, ODSs in the atmosphere peak in 1994 -- The ozone layer today.

2. Diplomacy: The beginning, 1974-1987 : Introduction -- The World Plan of Action, 1977 -- Coordinating Committee on the Ozone Layer (CCOL) and the Ozone Layer Bulletins -- Harmonizing national policies, 1979-1981 -- The Governing Council sets up a negotiating group, 1981 -- Ad Hoc Working Group of Legal and Technical Experts, 1982 -- First draft convention and discussions, 1982 -- First specific proposal to control CFCs, 1983 -- Further negotiations, 1983-1985 -- The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, 1985 -- First comprehensive scientific assessment, 1985 -- Economic and environmental workshops, 1986 -- Negotiations on the protocol, 1986-1987 -- Focusing on the key questions -- The 'breakthrough' session, April 1987 -- Seventh draft protocol, 1987, and country comments -- The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, 1987.

3. Diplomacy: From strength to strength, 1988-1992 : Introduction -- Preparations for the entry into force of the Convention and the Protocol -- Dissatisfaction of major developing countries -- First Meeting of the Parties, Helsinki, 1989: Resolve to phase out by 2000 -- Preparatory work for the Second Meeting of the Parties -- Discussions on the financial mechanism, control measures and technology, 1990 -- Second Meeting of the Parties, London, 1990: Phase-out by 2000 and US$240 million fund approved -- Preparatory work for the third Meeting of the Parties -- Third Meeting of the Parties, Nairobi, 1991: Import of products with CFCs banned from non-Parties -- Further progress in 1991 -- Proposals to accelerate the phase-out -- Multilateral Fund or Global Environment Facility? -- Earth Summit, Rio de Janeiro, 1992 -- Opposition to methyl bromide controls -- Faster phase-outs welcomed by industrialized countries -- Incremental costs -- Fourth Meeting of the Parties, Copenhagen, 1992: HCFCs, methyl bromide controlled, Fund confirmed.

4. Diplomacy: Racing towards success, 1993-2001 : Introduction -- Fifth Meeting of the Parties, Bangkok, 1993: Second replenishment of the Fund by US$455 million -- Sixth Meeting of the Parties, Nairobi, 1994: Russian Federation gives notice of non-compliance -- Third reports of the assessment panels, 1994 -- Review of control measures and financial mechanism for developing countries, 1995 -- Proposals for adjustments before working group meetings, 1995 -- Seventh Meeting of the Parties, Vienna, 1995: Further strengthening of the control measures -- Meetings in 1996: Illegal trade discussed, replenishment of the Fund by US$466 million in San Jose, Costa Rica -- Tenth anniversary, Montreal, 1997: Control measures on methyl bromide tightened -- Meetings in 1998: 1998 assessment confirms Protocol working, tenth Meeting of the Parties in Cairo discusses link between ozone depletion and climate change, non-compliance -- Meetings in 1999: Beijing Amendment, freeze in production of HCFCs and trade restrictions, replenishment of the Fund by US$440 million -- Twelfth Meeting of the Parties, Ouagadougou, 2000: Further attempts to tighten controls on HCFCs -- Meetings in 2001: Thirteenth Meeting of the Parties in Colombo, non-compliance, new ODS.

5. Technology and business policy : Introduction -- Commercial history of ozone-depleting substances -- Industry opposition and then support for regulation of ozone-depleting substances -- Industry response to the Montreal Protocol: What a difference a treaty makes! -- Industry and military motivations for leadership on ozone protection -- Phasing out ozone-depleting substances from US military applications -- Alternatives: Criteria and evolution after the Montreal Protocol -- Technical strategies to reduce and eliminate ozone-depleting substances -- Environmental perspective on substitutes and alternatives -- Economics of phasing out ozone-depleting substances.

6. Implementation of the Montreal Protocol : Introduction -- Structure of the obligations of the Montreal Protocol -- The role and activities of the Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of the Montreal Protocol -- Multilateral Fund replenishment and contributions -- Implementing agencies of the Multilateral Fund -- The Global Environment Facility (GEF) -- The role of national governments -- The role of government agencies as customers and market leaders -- The role of industry and industry non-governmental organizations -- Regulations force new technologies -- Regional and bilateral cooperation -- The role of conferences and workshops -- The role of environmental NGOs -- The role of professional membership organizations -- The importance of awareness campaigns.

7. Compliance with the Montreal Protocol : Introduction -- Reporting on compliance measures -- The role of the Implementation Committee -- Results of implementation, 1989-1999 -- Non-compliance by Parties with economies in transition -- Compliance by developing countries operating under Article 5 -- The response of the Meetings of the Parties to non-compliance -- Conclusion. 8. Media coverage of the ozone-layer issue : Introduction -- Analysis of media coverage -- Media coverage of seminal ozone-layer events -- The Molina-Rowland Hypothesis, 1974-1975 -- US ban on CFC aerosol products, 1977-1978 -- The discovery of the Antarctic ozone hole, 1985 -- Negotiating and signing the Montreal Protocol, 1987 -- London Conference on Saving the Ozone Layer, 1989 -- Second Meeting of the Parties, London, 1990 -- Fourth Meeting of the Parties, Copenhagen, 1992 -- Ninth Meeting of the Parties, Montreal, 1997 -- Eleventh Meeting of the Parties, Beijing, 1999 --

9. Environmental NGOs, the ozone layer and the Montreal Protocol : Introduction: NGOs as 'shapers of policy' -- The role of environmental NGOs in the ozone campaign -- Litigation and collaboration: Complementary approaches -- Raising awareness and generating media coverage -- Advocacy work on policy and alternative technologies -- Working with industry and government -- Boycotting ODS products and creating demand for ozone-friendly products -- Monitoring implementation of the Montreal Protocol -- Conclusion. 10. Conclusion: A perspective and a caution : The successes of the ozone regime -- Why was the ozone regime successful? -- Lessons from the development of the Montreal Protocol -- Features of the Protocol promoting participation -- Partnership led by science and technology -- Why did industry cooperate: Regulation or availability of alternatives to ODSs? -- Caution for the future.

Appendix 1. Ozone layer timelines: 4500 million years ago to present. Appendix 2. World Plan of Action, April 1977. Appendix 3. Controlled substances under the Montreal Protocol. Appendix 4. Control measures of the Montreal Protocol. Appendix 5. Indicative list of categories of incremental costs. Appendix 6. Awards for ozone-layer protection: Nobel Prize, United Nations and others. Appendix 7. Assessment Panels of the Montreal Protocol. Appendix 8. Core readings on the history of ozone-layer protection. Appendix 9. Selected ozone websites.